System engineering Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Framework designing - Coursework Example Now and again change is generally flighty, coming at time that an association doesn't envision it. In such a situation, the manner in which an association handles the change decides the versatility that decides the recuperation of the association. Different proposals have been given on the best way to oversee change in frameworks building. To successfully manage change in frameworks designing, it is prescribed to follow a basic rule. First distinguish the regions that change is required in the procedures and legitimize the requirement for change. Also, survey and assess the chance of positive outcomes from an adjustment as far as managing partners needs or thinking of a superior item. Thirdly, change supervisors should execute the adjustment in a procedure that doesn't upset the entire framework. At the point when a change is at long last set up, it ought to be rehearsed to supplant the past procedure and made the standard. This should then be trailed by intermittent observing of the change as it is being actualized and assessment of the entire procedure (Habhouba, Cherkaoui, and Desrochers, p.

The Internal Chaos Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

The Internal Chaos - Research Paper Example The functions of the military and the administration are to shield the country from outside assault, secure the spots for an existence with opportunity, and give the numbness on who are on the good and bad sides in wars. The genuine security won't be accomplished completely through sending military volunteers to another country and making settlements with different governments. The genuine harmony and war evasion lies in the hands of the people without depending to the administrative efforts.1 Objective of the Study For the reason for the examination, the attention would be on the American Civil War and the Ku Klux Klan as the history recorded confirmations in regards to both the occasion and the gathering itself. A few separations existed as clashes emerged during the Civil War and intensive comprehension on the historical backdrop of both the war and the gathering would be looked at as they coincided and influenced the lives of individuals in America. Foundation Information Through out the historical backdrop of United States of America, the American Civil War was viewed as the most costly war recorded on history of the country. The fights isolated the country into half and the nation got 600,000 passings and 1,000,000 setbacks. The victors were only the rare sorts of people who endure the arrangement of furnished battles. Natural selection was inescapable in the Civil War. The overwhelming impacts didn't just occur in USA yet in addition felt in the neighboring nations. The war occurred as endeavors were made to cancel slavery.2 The war began during the hour of Abraham Lincoln on April 12, 1861 as the military and the Confederates had an experience fight in South Carolina. In light of the main experience fight, Lincoln made a volunteer armed force to free individuals... This article talks about the American Civil War as the most costly war recorded on history of the country. The fights isolated the country into half and the nation got 600,000 passings and 1,000,000 losses. The victors were only the rare sorts of people who endure the arrangement of furnished battles. Natural selection was unavoidable in the Civil War. The overwhelming impacts didn't just occur in USA yet additionally felt in the neighboring nations. The war occurred as endeavors were made to annul subjugation. The war began during the hour of Abraham Lincoln on April 12, 1861 as the military and the Confederates had an experience fight in South Carolina. Because of the principal experience fight, Lincoln made a volunteer armed force to liberate individuals from subjection. Both the administration and the Confederated made their own armed forces as the war advanced. During the fight in Maryland, the Confederates were crushed at the purported Battle of Antietam dated September 1862. A fter such war, the Emancipation Proclamation was discharged that authoritatively assigned servitude as the fundamental war objective. The reasons for the common war were the accompanying: sectionalism, bondage, privileges of States, slave force, patriotism, and skirmish of Fort Sumter and appointment of Lincoln. The North and South of USA had contrasts in social structure, culture and economies that made the common war sprout. The distinctions occurred as the North centered around dynamic and modernized homesteads as the South kept on depending on bondage. The expulsion of bondage caused a lot of dread in the South as slave revolts. All things considered, the administration made developments in halting the spread of subjection.

Common Risk Factors Associated With Panic Disorder

Common Risk Factors Associated With Panic Disorder Panic Disorder Diagnosis Print Panic Disorder Risk Factors By Katharina Star, PhD facebook linkedin Katharina Star, PhD, is an expert on anxiety and panic disorder. Dr. Star is a professional counselor, and she is trained in creative art therapies and mindfulness. Learn about our editorial policy Katharina Star, PhD Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on August 05, 2016 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on July 26, 2019 Paul Bradbury/Getty Images More in Panic Disorder Diagnosis Symptoms Treatment Coping Related Conditions Numerous factors have been found to increase the risk of having panic disorder, panic attacks, and agoraphobia. However, these risk factors are not  the causes of panic disorder. Rather, risk factors for panic disorder describe specific characteristics that are commonly associated with developing this condition. Common risk factors include a person’s gender, age, medical history, family environment, and life experiences. Even though studies have found that certain risk factors are linked to the development of panic disorder, it does not mean that they are the causes of panic disorder. Rather, risk factors only indicate a relationship between a mental health disorder and a particular trait. Here are some of the frequently observed risk factors associated with panic disorder. DSM-5 Criteria for Diagnosing Panic Disorder Age The age of onset for panic disorder is frequently between late adolescence and early adulthood. Even though panic disorder typically develops between the ages of 18 and 35, it is still possible to occur any time throughout the lifespan. Although far less common, panic disorder can develop in childhood or late adulthood. It is also possible to experience panic disorder on and off across one’s life. For example, a person can have recurring and unexpected panic attacks for several months, followed by several years in which they do not experience any symptoms. Panic Disorder Can Occur Early in Adolescence Gender As mentioned, women are more prone to developing anxiety disorders than men. Panic disorder, in particular, is even more prevalent in women. Women are at almost twice the risk for panic disorder than men. Personality Research has shown that there is some correlation between children with more fearful, anxious, or nervous personality types and later development of panic disorder. There are some ways that parents can help decrease the risk of their children developing an anxiety disorder. However, the cause of panic disorder is unknown and many mental health specialists agree that it is most likely caused by a complex combination of environmental, biological, and psychological factors. How Perfectionism Can Contribute to Anxiety Family Environment There are certain family traits that have shown a relationship with panic disorder. In particular, parents who model anxiety, are overly demanding, and expect perfectionism may be at some risk of having children who develop anxiety disorders later in life. However, adults with panic disorder have been raised in various types of homes and family dynamics. Genetics There is a strong link between panic disorder and familial patterns. People with a close biological family member with panic disorder are up to 8 times more like to develop the condition themselves. These numbers can increase depending on the age of onset of the disorder. If a family member developed panic disorder before the age of 20 years old, first-degree biological relatives are up to 20 times more likely to have panic disorder. Despite these overwhelming statistics, research has indicated that up to a half or more of people with panic disorder do not have close relatives that have also developed this condition. Life Events It has been suggested that stressful life events can contribute to the onset of panic disorder. Stressful life events can include difficult life experiences, such as the death of a loved one, loss of a job, or divorce. Some life transitions that bring a great deal of change to our lives can also cause a lot of stress, such as getting married, moving, having a baby, or retiring. Research has also indicated that experiencing a traumatic event, such as being the victim of physical or sexual abuse, has a higher correlation with panic disorder. It is also possible to experience panic attacks during a stressful life event, but then never experience them again. For example, a person who is a victim of a crime or experiences a natural disaster may have a panic attack during that event. To be diagnosed with panic disorder, a person would need to have recurrent and unexpected panic attacks. Co-Occurring Conditions Many people with panic disorder also struggle with feelings of overall worry, anxiety, and sadness. Other typical co-occurring conditions include: DepressionSocial anxiety disorderGeneralized anxiety disorderSpecific phobiaObsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) A person with panic disorder is also at risk of developing agoraphobia. This condition involves a fear of having a panic attack in a place or situation in which escape would be potentially challenging or humiliating. Agoraphobia can occur at any time following persistent panic attacks. However, a person with panic disorder typically develops agoraphobia within the first year of repeated panic attacks. How to Help Teens With Agoraphobia and Panic Disorder

Calpulli Core Organization of Aztec Society

A calpulli (kal-POOH-li), also spelled calpolli, singular calpul and sometimes known as tlaxilacalli, refers to the social and spatial neighborhoods which were the main organizing principle in cities throughout the Central American Aztec empire (1430–1521 CE). Fast Facts: Calpulli Calpul (plural calpulli) is the Aztec word for the comparable Spanish term barrio.  Calpulli were collections of people in small rural villages or political wards in cities who worked in and shared ownership, more or less, of the property and fields.  Calpulli were the lowest social order in Aztec society, and the most populous.  They were administered by locally-selected leaders, sometimes but not always kin-based, and paid taxes to the Aztec state as a collective.   Calpulli, which means roughly big house in Nahua, the language spoken by the Aztecs, was the fundamental core of Aztec society, an organizational unit broadly corresponding to a city ward  or a Spanish â€Å"barrio.† More than a neighborhood, though, the calpulli was a politically-organized, territory-holding group of peasants, who lived near one another in rural villages or in neighborhoods in larger cities. The Calpullis Place in Aztec Society In the Aztec empire, calpulli represented the lowest and most populous social unit under the level of the city-state, called in Nahua an altepetl. The social structure looked mostly like this: The top level consisted of the member cities of the Triple Alliance: Tlacopan, Tenochtitlan, and Texcoco. The highest administrative authorities in the Triple Alliance were called Huetlatoani.Subject to the Triple Alliance were the altepetl (city-states), led by a dynastic ruler known as a tlatoani (plural tlatoque). These were smaller urbanized centers which had been conquered by the Triple Alliance.Finally, calpulli were small rural villages or wards in altepetls or cities, led by chiefs and a council of elders. In Aztec society, the altepetl were connected and aligned city-states, all of whom were subject to the authorities at whichever city had conquered them, Tlacopan, Tenochtitlan, or Texcoco. The populations of both big and small cities were organized into calpulli. At Tenochtitlan, for example, there were eight distinct and roughly equivalent calpulli within each of the four quarters that made up the city. Each altepetl was also made up of several calpulli, who would as a group contribute separately and more or less equally to the common tax and service obligations of the altepetl. Organizing Principles In the cities, the members of a particular calpulli typically lived within a cluster of houses (calli) located near one another, forming wards or districts. Thus calpulli refers to both a group of people and the neighborhood they lived in. In the rural parts of the Aztec empire, calpulli often lived in their own separate villages. Calpulli were more or less extended ethnic or kin groups, with a common thread that united them, although that thread varied in meaning. Some calpulli were kin-based, related family groups; others were made up of unrelated members of the same ethnic group, perhaps a migrant community. Others functioned as guilds—groups of artisans who worked gold, or kept birds for feathers or made pottery, textiles, or stone tools. And of course, many had multiple threads uniting them. Shared Resources People within a calpulli were peasant commoners, but they shared communal farmlands or chinampas. They worked the land or fished, or hired non-connected commoners called macehualtin to work the lands and fish for them. The calpulli paid tribute and taxes to the leader of the altepetl who in turn paid tribute and taxes to the Empire. Calpullis also had their own military schools (telpochcalli) where young men were educated: When they were mustered for war, the men from a calpulli went into battle as a unit. Calpullis had their own patron deity and a ceremonial district with administrative buildings and a temple where they worshiped. Some had a small market where goods were traded. The Power of the Calpulli While the calpulli were the lowest class of the organized groups, they were not poor or without influence in the greater Aztec society. Some of the calpulli controlled lands up to a few acres in area; some had access to a few elite goods, while others did not. Some artisans might be employed by a ruler or affluent noble and compensated handsomely. Commoners could be instrumental in a significant provincial power struggle. For example, a populist uprising based in a calpulli in Coatlan was successful in calling in the Triple Alliance to help them overthrow an unpopular ruler. Calpulli-based military garrisons were dangerous if their loyalty wasnt rewarded, and military leaders paid them handsomely to avert massive looting of conquered cities. Calpulli members also played roles in society-wide ceremonies for their patron deities. For example, calpulli that were organized for sculptors, painters, weavers, and embroiderers played significant active roles at ceremonies dedicated to the goddess Xochiqetzal. Many of these ceremonies were public affairs, and the calpulli participated actively in those rituals. Chiefs and Administration Even though the calpulli was the main Aztec unit of social organization and included the majority of the population, little of its political structure or composition is fully described in the historical records left by the Spanish, and scholars have long debated the precise role or makeup of calpulli. What is suggested by the historical records is that the chief of each calpulli was the paramount and highest-ranking member of the community. This officer was usually a man and he represented his ward to the larger government. The leader was in theory elected, but several studies and historic sources have shown that the role was functionally hereditary: Most calpulli leaders came from the same family group. A council of elders supported the leadership. The calpulli maintained a census of its members, maps of their lands, and provided tribute as a unit. The calpulli owed tribute to the higher ranks of the population, in the form of goods (agricultural produce, raw material, and manufactured goods) and services (labor on public works and maintaining the court and military service). Edited and updated by  K. Kris Hirst Sources Berdan, Frances F. Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Print.Fargher, Lane F., Richard E. Blanton, and Verenice Y. Heredia Espinoza. Egalitarian Ideology and Political Power in Prehispanic Central Mexico: The Case of Tlaxcallan. Latin American Antiquity 21.3 (2010): 227–51. Print.Pennock, Caroline Dodds. Mass Murder or Religious Homicide? Rethinking Human Sacrifice and Interpersonal Violence in Aztec Society. Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung 37.3 (141) (2012): 276–302. Print.---. ‘A Remarkably Patterned Life’: Domestic and Public in the Aztec Household City. Gender History 23.3 (2011): 528–46. Print.Smith, Michael E. Aztec Urbanism: Cities and Towns. The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs. Eds. Nichols, Deborah L. and Enrique Rodriguez-Alegria. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017. Print.---. The Aztecs Paid Taxes, Not Tribute. Mexicon36.1 (2014): 19–22. Print. ---. The Aztecs. 3 rd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. Print.

Research Papers about Should Sex Education Be Required In Public Schools

Despite the obvious statistics, restless debates on whether sex education should be obligatory in public schools flourish. Statistics of the Guttmacher Institute claims that the United States has â€Å"one of the highest teen pregnancy rates in the developed world—almost twice as high as those of England, Wales and Canada, and eight times as high as those of the Netherlands and Japan.† According to the Guttmacher studies among 750,000 teen pregnancies that annually take place, over 82 percent are unintended, one-quarter of which result in abortions. To a large extent, abstinence-only sex ed stands out against the broad sex education course that the majority American parents want — from the ABC of how babies are conceived to how condoms are supposed to put on to how to get tested for STD.  (Facts on Sex Education in the United States, 2006) When discussing the issue of introducing sex education as an obligatory course of public schools, conservatism conflicts with liberalism, religion collides with logic. Conservatives and adherents of the Bush administration strongly believe that sex education should add up to premarital continence. However, according to numerous surveys of public opinion teacher and parents are dissatisfied with such strategy. On the question of the Annenberg Public Policy Center if they support the fact that students should be taught not only abstention but other methods of pregnancy prevention and STD infection approximately 82 percent of the responders (liberal and conservatives) gave a positive response. In the past the majority of the states accepted federal funding, but teachers in violation of the law told their students about contraception and other â€Å"prohibited† matters. Some states (Ohio, Wisconsin, Connecticut, Road Island, Montana and New Jersey) decided to reject governmental g rants but give their children real sex education. California completely rejected such federal programmes. Some opponents of sex education in public schools are convinced that sex education should be taught at home. They believe that that gives parents more control over the child’s knowledge of sexual orientation as well as perception of moral and immoral outlooks on sexual relations. Sex education at home can also protect the child from sour topic (disease, pregnancy or sexual orientation). Some believe that sex education is a very private and intimate topic and should not be disclosed to the public. Sex education at home puts more responsibility on the parents. Antagonist of sex ed in public schools completely disagree with the opinion that it’s OK if you are using a condom. (Dailard, C., 2001) Nevertheless, specialist and author of the book â€Å"Ten Talks Parents Must Have With Their Children† Pepper Schwartz believes: â€Å"Parents arent sex education experts just because they are parents†. And at the same time Bruno Bettelheim, an Austrian-born American c hild psychologist and writer, wrote in one of his article Our Children Are Treated Like Idiots in  Psychology Today of July 1981 that â€Å"†¦ you cannot have sex education without saying that sex is natural and that most people find it pleasurable†. (Quotes on sex education, 2010) The issue of sexual education has been discussed for several decades. The founder of the American  radical right-wing John Birch Society  Robert Welch in 1960 wrote that sex education in schools is a â€Å"filthy Communist plot† aiming to undermine spiritual health of the American youth. Under suppressing circumstances US was forced to introduce a course of such nature, however according to the law money from the federal budget could only be spent on programmes that teach students abstention from premarital sexual activities as this method was considered to be the only reliable way of preventing extramarital pregnancy, spreading of various sexually transmitted diseases and other health problems connected with this issue. (Sexuality Education for Children and Adolescents, 2001) This law became even stronger under George Walker Bush, Jr. Although the federal government annually spends more than $176 million on these programmes, these courses are absolutely ineffective. Ameri can indicators of sexual health among teenagers are the worst among all developed countries. Many of the governmentally subsidized programmes provide inaccurate conception of sexuality. For example, from 13 examined programmes, 11 contained false statements such as HIV is transmitted through sweat and tears, touching genitals can cause pregnancy, 43 day embryos can think, half of the American male homosexual population suffers from HIV, condoms do not protect from HIV in one third of the cases etc. (Sex Education in America, 2009) Statistics talks for itself. As a result of the growing pregnancy percentage among teenagers as well as the increasing rates of teen sexual activity, for the benefit of the students parents together with public school counsellors are searching for the most effective sex education schemes. The majority (46%) of the Americans consider that the most effectual scheme of sex ed is the so called â€Å"abstinence-plus†, when students are taught about the essence of abstinence as well as the necessity to use condoms and contraception. All in all it is vitally important to teach teens responsibility and wise decision-making when it comes to sex. Work Cited Dailard, C.  Sex Education: Politicians, Parents, Teachers and Teens.  The Guttmacher Report on Public Policy. Guttmacher Institute. February 2001. November 23, 2010. http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/tgr/04/1/gr040109.html â€Å"Facts on Sex Education in the United States†. Guttmacher Institute. December 2006. November 23, 2010. http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/fb_sexEd2006.html â€Å"Sex Education in America†. NRP. February 2009. November 23, 2010. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1622610 â€Å"Sexuality Education for Children and Adolescents†. Pediatrics, 2001;108;498-502. November 23, 2010. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/108/2/498 â€Å"Quotes on sex education†. Notable Quotes. 2010. November 23, 2010. http://www.notable-quotes.com/s/sex_education_quotes.html

First Date Free Essays

A first date can tell you a lot about a person. Even though i was just in seventh grade my first date was pretty great. Now I know in seventh grade and dating really back then was oh I will see you at school and that is about it. We will write a custom essay sample on First Date or any similar topic only for you Order Now For me my first date was with Ray Hoover. I felt like the coolest girl in school, I had a â€Å"boyfriend†, we wrote notes everyday, got in trouble for hugging in the hallway. It was great I was a cheerleader he was one of the best football players. I thought we were going to be together for ever.When boys and girls traveled together we where always around each other and it is great. He asked me if I wanted to go to the movies with a bunch of people on friday night. Of course I said yes but then I had to ask my mom. After I asked my mom and she had said yes I could go, but first I had to tell her everyone who is going and bring my best friend at the time Mallorie Mclaughin with me. I asked my mom if she would do my hair and I wanted to get a new outfit and everything. I was so ready for friday to get her I couldn’t wait.Ray and I would talk about it everyday till then. The big day was finally her and school couldn’t go by any slower. I was going on my first date and that is all I could think about. As soon as I got back from school mom curled my hair and I put on my outfit and was ready to go. I felt like it was ready for forever. Then mom told me it was time to go and I was so nervous I felt like i was going to be sick. We went and picked up Mallorie and then we were off. We arrive at the movies and mom gives me money, I tell her I love her, then got out of the car.I show up and Ray isn’t there yet but is on his way. Holly Bradley, Kyle Orick, John Caswell. Kyle told me that Ray was on his way. While we were waiting all us girls went to the bathroom. When we came out of the bathroom Ray was there. He had on khakis, and a polo. Holly wispers in my hear and says he looks really nice. I just smiled. Us girl all decided we wanted to watch Spanglish and the boys wanted to watch some other movie. Ray was a good guy and besides to go with me to the other movie.Mallorie sat my me and Ray on the other side. It was the dumbest movie I ever saw in my life. To this day It is still the dumbest movie. We held hands during the whole movie and It it was the best first date. The movie was over and lights went on and then Ray lend in and gave me a kiss on the ceeck. I was so happy I couldn’t stop from smiling. We walk out of the theater and my moms car is outside. Mallorie says goodbye to everyone, while me and Ray hug goodbye and say we will see each other monday at school and I will call you tomorrow.After that Mallorie and I left to take her home and then head home ourself. As soon as I got home Mallorie called and we talked for an hour about the date. Even though I thought that my first date with Ray would be my last first date. As everyone know you will usually break up with your 7th grade boyfriend and we did break up. I still think that it was the best first date the any girl could have went on. The only thing that I would change about that date is the movie. Other than that I wouldn’t change a thing. It was just perfect. How to cite First Date, Papers

Coping mechanisms free essay sample

Coping  mechanisms  can be described as the sum total of ways in which we deal with minor to major  stress  and  trauma. Some of these processes are unconscious ones, others are learned behavior, and still others are skills we consciously master in order to reduce  stress, or other intense emotions like depression. Not all  coping  mechanisms  are equally beneficial, and some can actually be very detrimental. The body has an interior set of  coping  mechanisms  for encountering  stress. This includes the fight/flight reaction to high  stress  or trauma. A person perceiving  stress  has an automatic boost in  adrenaline, prompting either action, or inaction. People have a variable level of physical reaction to different levels of  stress. For some, merely getting interrupted from a task can cause an inappropriate fight/flight reaction. This can translate to â€Å"fight†Ã‚  mechanisms, where a person gets very angry with others for interrupting him. Alternately, flight may include physically leaving, or simply being unable to regain focus and get back on task. Other unconscious  coping  strategies can include the way our minds deal with a constant barrage of  stress. People in the psychiatric field suggest that mental illnesses tend to be coping  mechanisms  that evolve from certain stressors. For example, multiple personality disorder may result in children who are severely abused. Panic disorder  may be the body’s coping  mechanisms  for inappropriate fight/flight reactions to minor stressors. Some mental illnesses also have a genetic basis, but  stress  certainly often plays a role in making these illnesses more severe. Coping is thus expending conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems, and seeking to master, minimize or tolerate  stress  or  conflict. Psychological coping mechanisms are commonly termed coping strategies or coping skills. Unconscious or non conscious strategies (e. g. ,  defense mechanisms) are generally excluded. The term coping generally refers to adaptive or constructive coping strategies, i. e. the strategies reduce stress levels. However, some coping strategies can be considered maladaptive, i. e. , stress levels increase. Maladaptive coping can thus be described, in effect, as non-coping. Furthermore, the term coping generally refers to reactive coping, i. e. , the coping response follows the stressor. This contrasts with proactive coping, in which a coping response aims to head off a future stressor. Coping responses are partly controlled by personality (habitual traits), but also partly by the social context, particularly the nature of the stressful environment. The effect of stress is directly linked to coping. The study of coping has evolved to encompass large variety of disciplines beginning with all areas of psychology such as health psychology, environmental psychology, neuro psychology and developmental psychology to areas of medicine spreading into the area of anthropology and sociology. Dissecting coping strategies into three broad components, (biological/physiological, cognitive, and learned) will provide a better understanding of what the seemingly immense area is about. Significance of the Study This study is deemed significant to the following: Primarily to the Students, this study will enable them to determine level of stress and develop personal strategies to reduce stress which may post threat to their sense of well being and disrupt their normal functioning in etherealized learning experience. For clinical instructors, results of this study could serve as a guide in planning for activities or strategies that would help the students exercise control over the stressful situations in the Related Learning Experience. For the Administrators, this study will serve as a basis to encourage them to support and approve school activities which will benefit the student’s well-being. Primarily to the Students, this study will enable them to determine level of stress and develop personal strategies to reduce stress which may post threat to their sense of well being and disrupt their normal functioning in etherealized learning experience. For the different School Organizations and Student Council, this study will aid them to develop different organizational activities or programs that will help the student members to release their tension and manage stress. For the Future Researchers, this study will serve as a reference and baseline information to further develop on studies that enhance the stress and coping mechanisms. Scope and Delimitation of the Study This study will focus on the stress and coping mechanisms of individual preferences of the selected Third Year Medical Technology students of University of Perpetual Help System Laguna. A research – made questionnaire was used as a research instrument. Furthermore, the result of the study holds true for the stress and coping mechanisms of different students. Chapter 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter presents the literatures reviewed, which may be utilized in defining the methodology and/or interpretation of data. Literature reviewed includes local and foreign books, local and foreign researches, articles, and internet materials. Related Literature The effect of stress is directly linked to coping. The study of coping has evolved to encompass large variety of disciplines beginning with all areas of psychology such as health psychology, environmental psychology, neuro psychology and developmental psychology to areas of medicine spreading into the area of anthropology and sociology. Dissecting coping strategies into three broad components, (biological/physiological, cognitive, and learned) will provide a better understanding of what the seemingly immense area is about. The body has its own way of coping with stress. Any threat or challenge that an individual perceives in the environment triggers a chain of neuroendocrine events. These events can be conceptualized as two separate responses, that being of sympathetic/adrenal response, with the secretion of catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine) and the pituitary/adrenal response, with the secretion of corticosteroids (Frankanhauser, 1986). The sympathetic/adrenal response takes the message from the brain to the adrenal medulla via the sympathetic nervous system, which secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine. This is the basic fight or flight response (Cannon, 1929), where the heart rate quickens and the blood pressure rises. In the pituitary/adrenal response, the hypothalamus is stimulated and produces the corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) to the pituitary gland through the blood veins, then the adrenal corticotropic hormone (ACTH) is released from the pituitary gland to the adrenal cortex. The adrenal cortex in turn secretes cortisol, a hormone that will report back to the original brain centers together with other body organs to tell it to stop the whole cycle. But since cortisol is a potent hormone, the prolonged secretion of it will lead to health problems such as the break down of cardiovascular system, digestive system, musculoskeletal system, and the recently established immune system. Also when the organism does not have a chance for recovery, it will lead to both catecholamine and corisol depletion and result in the third stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome of exhaustion (Seyle, 1956). Social support has also been established by studies to be linked to stress (Bolger Eckenrole, 1991; House, et. al, 1988). This can be seen as a dimension of the biological component since it is closely linked to the biological environment of that individual. There are many aspects to social support; the major categories would be of emotional, tangible, and informational. Personality types as so called Type A Personality have been defined to have such characteristics as competitive, impatient and hostile. Hostility has been linked to coronary heart disease which is thought be caused by stress (Rosenman, 1978). Eysenck (1988) has coined the term Type C Personality for those who are known to be repressors and are prone to cancer. Hardiness also is a personality that seems to have much to do with how an individual handles stress. Hardiness is defined as having a sense of control, commitment, and challenge towards life in general. Kobasa (1979) has studied subjects who were laid off in large numbers by ATT when the federal deregulation took place, and found that the people who were categorized as having hardy personalities were mentally and emotionally better off than the others. Although it may be possible o modifying ones personality, research has shown it to be heritable (Rahe, Herrig, Rosenman, 1978; Parker, Barret, 1992). The cognitive approach to coping is based on a mental process of how the individual appraises the situation. Where the level of appraisal determines the level of stress and the unique coping strategies that the individual partakes. (Lazarus Folkman, 1984). There are two types of appraisals, the primary and the secondary. A primary appraisal is made when the individual makes a conscious evaluation of the matter at hand of whether it is harm or a loss, a threat or a challenge. Then secondary appraisal takes place when the individual asks him/herself What can I do? by evaluating the coping resources around him/her. These resources include, physical resources, such as how healthy one is, or how much energy one has, social resources, such as the family or friends one has to depend on for support in his/her immediate surroundings, psychological resources, such as self-esteem and self-efficacy, and also material resources such as how much money you have or what kind of equipment you might be able to use. How much personal control one perceives to have is another factor to consider when looking at coping from the cognitive perspective. Usually an individual will find themselves feeling more stressful in uncontrollable situations. Also, since personal control is a cognitive process, the more one has a sense of personal control, better sense of coping ability one will have. The category of the attribution theory gives a good picture of the extreme ends of the in control/lack of control continuum. An individual will perceive to have the most control where the situations fit the categories of internal, transient, and specific. At the opposite end of the scale is the category of external, stable, and global where the person will perceive lack of control. There are other ways of to approach coping from a cognitive perspective such as that of constructive and destructive thinking as conceptualized by Epstien and Meier (1989) a similar concept to that of optimistic versus pessimistic (Taylor, 1991), the perceived level of self-efficacy and self-esteem and so on. Many researchers who have studied subjects at midterms or finals and have found that coping is clearly a complex process, influenced by both personality characteristics (Bolger, 1990; Friedman et al. 1992; Long Sangster, 1993), situational demands (Folkman Lazarus, 1986; Heim et al. , 1993), and even the social and physical characteristics of the setting (Mechanic, 1978). As we have seen in the various theoretical paradigms of coping, every factor from physiological, psychological, social, to cultural, both affect and are affected by the coping strategies. Just as there is said to be an optimal level of stress for an individual to function most effectively, I propose that there is an optimal level of coping which minimizes cost and maximizes benefits on all levels of the various factors combined. A coping strategy that may work to improve a romantic relationship may have its negative social, cultural, or even psychological consequences. If you choose not to see your friends so that you have more time to spend with your romantic partner, or you choose to move in with that person when it is considered a cultural taboo, or you are so psychologically dominated by that person that you dont have a mind of your own. In such cases, the individual has the illusion that they are effectively coping with a particular stress, while what they are really doing is creating many others. Also, since each factor has the power to influence the others, the true form of the transaction theory can only be captured when time is included as one of the variables. Longitudinal studies are crucial in order to truly reflect the long term effects and processes that take place within the whole coping mechanism. Think about  what many  college students go through. Leaving the family  home, feeling intense pressure to  obtain high grades  in connection with  career  aspirations, taking final exams,  trying to establish a romantic/social life, dealing with  (often very high)  costs of college and possibly working at a job during the school year.